Monday, February 27, 2012
Animal Research: An Ethical and Logical Issue
As the American public becomes more concerned with the welfare of animals and the web of ethical issues that the use of research animals creates, one type of animal research is becoming more scrutinized than the others: the use of chimpanzees for drug research and development. Two facilities in particular, the National Institutes of Health and the New Iberia Research Center, have taken much fire opposing their apparent breach of a sixteen year-old sanction on the breeding of more chimpanzees solely for medical research. Although Americans have generally become more concerned with the ethical treatment of research animals, the testing of new drugs on animals is seen by many as a must for simply one reason: it is less ethical to test the new drugs on humans.
In my personal opinion, animal research should continue to be sanctioned.
Albeit animal research seems cruel, it is indeed more ethical to test new medicines and drugs on an animal than on a fellow human being. The side effects of new medicines need to be discovered before people are allowed to use the medicine; this is something everyone can agree on. Being that the majority of people think that testing drugs with unknown side effects on people is unethical, a substitute is needed. Chimpanzees are the closest genetically related species to humans, possessing 48 chromosomes to the human 46. This makes the chimpanzee a vital tool to new medicine development. As I mentioned earlier, this practice may seem cruel, but it is a necessary cruelty. The amount of people’s lives that have been saved using drugs that have been developed via animal research serves as enough evidence that it should be continued. “Treatments for diseases such as diabetes and polio were made possible through animal research, the researchers said, and animals are currently being used in hepatitis-, HIV- and stem cell-related research, among others” (Discovery News, Para. 4). People on the fence about the issue or those blatantly opposed to the issue should ask themselves the following question: “Would I rather new medicines with unknown side effects be tested on myself or an animal?”
In current times, animal research is being met with less and less popular support. A recent study by Princeton University shows that the American public is becoming more opposed to animal research as time goes on. The study revealed that 67% of Americans said they would be more inclined to donate to charitable health organizations that never fund animal research than a charitable health organization that did fund such research. The study also showed the trend of younger people being more opposed to animal research in comparison to the older generations.
In the article “Breeding Contempt”, the author is not opposed to animal research, as long as the animals are treated as ethically as possible. A claim is made that the National Institutes of Health (NIH), headquartered in Maryland, has not enforced a moratorium imposed in 1995, which prohibits the breeding of chimpanzees specifically for medical research. The moratorium was enacted in 1995 for financial reasons, predominately because “it costs at least $300,000 to support a single chimp for its lifetime” (Breeding Contempt, Para. 6). The author claims that the American public supports this type of research in faith that the animals being used are treated as humanely as possible, and that we the people deserve more honesty from the institutions conducting said research. The Humane Society has presented evidence of 137 chimp births at the NIH facility to the US Senate committee that appropriates funds to the NIH, which forced the New Iberia Research Center (NIRC) to confess the births of the chimps. The revelation of this new information has decreased the amount of public support of medical research on chimpanzees in the United States, due to the research facility’s lack of compliance with the sanction of breeding more animals.
The author also implies that because the NIH has responded to recent inquiries into the matter with silence that the NIH must be guilty and trying not to shoot themselves in the foot so to say. Has anyone thought that the NIH has not responded to the further questions because they have nothing further to say about the matter? It is quite possible that they have reported all the information they have, or are tired of being harassed about the issue.
To conclude, animal research is a controversial topic, as it has been for some time and will continue to be. However, this practice is one of importance to the well being of mankind, as it has produced vaccines and treatments for many, many diseases that puzzled the medical community for years on end. Imagine what our world today would be like had no vaccine for polio been developed. There would be many more sick people in the world today had a vaccine not been developed, and there would have been no vaccine developed without animal research.
"Animal Experimentation Public Opinion. An Update." Of Human and Non-Human
Animals. 04 Apr. 2008. Web. 20 Feb. 2012. <http://globalphilosophy.blogspot.com/2008/04/animal-experimentation-public-opinion.html>.
"US Researchers Defend Animal Testing : Discovery News." Discovery News: Earth,
Space, Tech, Animals, History, Adventure, Human, Autos. 21 Feb. 2011. Web. 20 Feb. 2012. <http://news.discovery.com/animals/animal-research-medical-defended-110221.html>.
"The Pill"
How does Plan B work? Plan B has three modes of action. It can alter the menstrual cycle which delays ovulation, it can inhibit ovulation which means that the egg will not be released from the ovary, or it can irritate the lining of the uterus to inhibit implantation (The Truth About the Morning After Pill).
Allowing Plan B to be available to teens represents a self-diagnosis gynecology. A child most likely cannot self-prescribe this medication. Dr. Francis Jensen from Harvard University developed a study that demonstrated how the child and adolescent brain is underdeveloped in the areas responsible for critical decision making (Nadal). It was once thought that the human brain was developed by the age ten. Jensen found that the frontal lobes, which are a crucial part of the brain, were not fully developed at age ten. The frontal lobes are the parts of the brain that consider the possible consequences of actions and decisions made. It is evident that adolescent girls have a lack of knowledge of their bodies, lack of impulse control, and lack of sufficient neurological development needed to make responsible and informed decisions (Nadal).
Plan B as an over-the-counter drug also presents the issue of parental rights. Acknowledging that there are many homes with unstable parenting, it still remains that parents have the right to know what their children are involved with and how their children are going to deal with those issues. Granting minors the accessibility to these pills could in fact be done in secrecy. It allows the girls to think that they can easily and freely get away with giving into their hormones and making careless decisions because they can just get a pill and solve all of their problems. Parents have the right and responsibility of aiding their children in navigating life and working through consequences. By allowing this drug to be available to all, the pharmaceutical companies are providing an easy way to not deal with the consequences of just trying to forget about them completely.
Plan B over-the-counter also sends morally unethical messages. It says to America that it is okay to be sexually active at a young age, thus potentially increasing the amount of STD’s and sexual related diseases. Because plan B prevents pregnancy, children will be more likely to not use protection which can bring about sexual related diseases. It does not enforce the importance of waiting at least until they are responsible adults. This could possibly remove any consequences from sexual predators and pedophiles from having sex with girls (oops! Plan B).
Lastly, when thinking about Plan B, it is important to understand why the FDA’s decision was overturned. The author of the Nature article was quick to bash the decision she made without presenting why she made the decision. Kathleen Sebelius made a personal statement in a press release stating that the drug proves to be safe and effective scientifically (hhs.gov). However, the switch from prescription to over the counter for this product requires that we have enough evidence to show that those who use this medicine can understand the label and use the product appropriately. She expressed that that standard was not met by Teva, which is one of the fifteen largest pharmaceutical companies in the world (hhs.gov). The label comprehension and actual use studies did not contain data for all ages for which this product would be available for use. This product hasn’t even been tested for this age range which presents serious ethical issues.
It is clear that Sebilius made the right decision by overturning the FDA’s decision (hhs.gov).
Allowing plan B to be available over the counter for adolescents has huge implications. The open accessibility of this drug is goes against parental rights, induces self-gynecology in adolescents and does not comply with the developmental and psychological aspects of how it can impact adolescent decision making , sends unethical messages, and not to mention the drug does not present enough evidence to show that adolescents can use it properly.
Works Cited
Sebellius, KAthleen. "NEws Release." U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. N.p., December 7, 2011. Web. "Is Plan B a boon for sexual predators?." oop! Plan B. N.p., 02 May 2009. Web. <http://www.oops-planb.com/2009/05/is-plan-b-a-boon-for-sexual-predators/>.
"The Truth About the Morning After Pill." Morning AFfter Pill. 2005-2012 American Life League, Inc., n.d. Web. <http://www.morningafterpill.org/how-does-it-work.html>.
Nadal, Ph.D, Gerard. "Denying Plan B to Teenagers Protects Girls' Health." LifeNews.com. N.p., 19 Dec 2011. Web. <http://www.lifenews.com/2011/12/09/denying-plan-b-drug-to-teenagers-protects-girls-health/>.
"The Morning After." Nature. 480.413 (2011): n. page. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. <http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v480/n7378/full/480413a.html>.
Defining Life
(http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-images/Guardian/Pix/pictures/2008/05/09/foetusnew460.jpg)
Lub-dub…lub-dub. Twenty-two days after fertilization, a human heart is beating (National Right to Life). Life presents itself as a particularly confusing topic nowadays. Many activists argue that human life begins when the heart starts beating. Despite these activists’ claims, life’s beginning is very debatable. The European Court of Justice (ECJ) attempted to differentiate between living and nonliving when they consented to the request of the German Supreme Court to clarify the “ambiguous wording” of a European Union ban of patents on procedures that use “human embryos”. The ECJ ruled that a “human embryo” comprises of an ovum that has been activated to divide by fertilization or other artificial means and that “research involving human embryonic stem-cell lines is immoral, because such cell lines are originally derived from fertilized eggs” (Nature). The ECJ was acting accordingly when it defined the “human embryo” because the “human embryo” is a living organism and is not necessary for stem-cell research.
A formal ruling needed to be made by the ECJ to define life because the biological definition of life is very debatable. Biologists define life as anything that contains these seven properties: order, reproduction, growth and development, energy processing, response to the environment, regulation, and evolutionary adaptation (Campbell). Despite this thorough definition, life is a puzzling concept to wrap your head around. This is evident in the debate as to whether or not fire is alive. It can be argued that fire has each of the properties of life except for order and evolutionary adaptation. Despite these two setbacks, it is still possible to argue if fire is alive. One just needs to stretch the definitions of order and evolutionary adaptation to argue that fire is a living thing. If it is possible to argue that fire is alive, it is certainly possible to argue that any egg that has been fertilized is alive. The arguable character of the biological definition of life prompted the ECJ to make its ruling. Before the ruling made by the ECJ, the “human embryo” (the general standard for human life) had not been clearly defined. Thus it was not clear if harvesting stem-cells from cultures of cells was murder or not. Opponents to the ruling made by the ECJ will argue that “human embryos” are not alive because they do not have beating hearts and using stem-cells from “human embryos” is not immoral.
Despite arguments made by proponents of stem-cell research, the “human embryo” has every property of life. These proponents may argue that “human embryos” are not able to reproduce when they do, in fact, have the potential to reproduce. Since “human embryos” possess every biological characteristic of life, harvesting stem-cells from “human embryos” is the same as aborting a fetus. Both of these horrible processes involve taking a life for personal benefit. Thus, the ECJ should be celebrated for deeming procedures that utilize stem-cells harvested from “human embryos” as immoral. Courts around the world should follow the ECJ’s initiative and deem these horrible procedures as immoral. Supporters of stem-cell research may argue that the act of outlawing procedures that utilize the stem-cells of “human embryos” is immoral because it ignores the well-being of patients in need of procedures that utilize stem-cells.
Outlawing procedures that use stem-cells from “human embryos” is not immoral because it does not deny patients their needed stem-cell treatment. Procedures that take advantage of stem-cells do not require stem-cells harvested from “human embryos”. Instead, stem-cells can be harvested from a newborn’s umbilical cord. While it is easier for patients to receive stem-cells from “embryos”, stem cells can be harvested from each individual’s umbilical cord after birth. Obtaining stem-cells from umbilical cords allows doctors to perform important procedures that use stem-cells without the risk of rejection and without aborting innocent “human embryos”.
The European Court of Justice essentially made a ruling because of a request made by the German Supreme Court. The ECJ did not act out of line and abuse its power when it defined the human embryo. Instead the ECJ confirmed that murder is in fact illegal. While the ECJ is not an authority on stem-cell research they were correct in their ruling because they did not outlaw all procedures that use stem-cells.
Citations:
"Error of Justice." Nature 480.7377 (2011): n. pag. Web. 9 Feb. 2012. <http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v480/n7377/full/480291b.html>.
Campbell, N. et al. (2009). Biology Concepts & Connections. Seventh Edition. Pearson Education, Inc.
National Right to Life. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Feb. 2012. <http://www.nrlc.org/abortion/index.html>.
The Toxic Truth About Sugar
“Public Health: The Toxic Truth about Sugar”, an article by Robert Lustig, Laura Schmidt, and Claire
Brindis tackles the controversy surrounding what exactly causes non-communicable diseases. Non-
communicable diseases include heart disease, cancer and diabetes. Usually people believe that obesity
causes these diseases, but this is not true. The top three factors that cause non-communicable diseases are
tobacco, alcohol, and diet. With diet comes much responsibility pertaining to the foods that are consumed,
including the type and amount. The new idea introduced in this article is that sugar is a concern regarding
diet making it a main reason that people develop non-communicable diseases. If you take the scientific
route this could be correct but when taking a look at a person’s lifestyle as a whole, this is wrong. When
people take a holistic view on their health it will keep them from developing diseases; knowing how much
a person has exercised, how they were raised, and under what standard of living they were raised is
important when considering non-communicable diseases.
Exercise should be a very important aspect of a healthy lifestyle. When people exercise at a constant
rate they are more likely to be healthy individuals. When considering the main topics surrounding the non-
communicable disease causes it is important to know how often a person exercises. It is recommended by
the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) that “children and adolescents should do 60
minutes or more of physical activity each day”. This includes aerobic activity, muscle strengthening, and
bone strengthening. The CDC also states that adults need at least “150 minutes of moderate-intensity
aerobic activity on 2 or more days a week.” Adults over the age of 65 years old need the same amount of
exercise as regular adults if they do not have any limiting health conditions. Even if an individual
consumes some sugary substances, a constant exercise regime will make that person an overall healthy
individual.
Exercise should be a very important aspect of a healthy lifestyle. When people exercise at a constant
rate they are more likely to be healthy individuals. When considering the main topics surrounding the non-
communicable disease causes it is important to know how often a person exercises. It is recommended by
the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) that “children and adolescents should do 60
minutes or more of physical activity each day”. This includes aerobic activity, muscle strengthening, and
bone strengthening. The CDC also states that adults need at least “150 minutes of moderate-intensity
aerobic activity on 2 or more days a week.” Adults over the age of 65 years old need the same amount of
exercise as regular adults if they do not have any limiting health conditions. Even if an individual
consumes some sugary substances, a constant exercise regime will make that person an overall healthy
individual.
Almost every individual obtained their dietary habits while being raised by their parents. Children are
very observant of their parent’s actions so parents have a significant influence over how their children act
as independent individuals. It has been proven that the mother’s are more responsible than father’s for the
dietary intake habits of their children. Therefore, if while growing up a child observed his or her mother
always consuming sugary substances, they would be more prone to consume those sugary substances. If a
child grew up in a household where a healthy diet was practiced along with a constant exercise regime, it
would not be surprising to see that child grow up to be healthy and active. Being a health conscious
individual needs to start off at a young age because this allows the habit to be engrained in the mind. The
picture above illustrates little children exercising. If we as a community can get children to carry out
healthy habits, they will be better off when they get older. Although sugar impacts an individual’s diet in a
negative way, it is important to evaluate why that person began eating these sugary substances. Many
reasons why would be because they were raised that way.
When taking a look at the diet of an individual, the standard of living is an important contributor. One
When taking a look at the diet of an individual, the standard of living is an important contributor. One
would think that an area of low socioeconomic status would promote under nourishment but this is not the
case. It has been proven that lower socioeconomic status can actually help with a higher energy intake. A
major reason for the higher intake of low socioeconomic citizen’s is that food with a large amount of
sugar is made readily available to the public. A lot of the sugary foods out there have a low cost whereas
organic foods are more expensive. A low-income family will be more apt to buy the least expensive foods
because they can buy them in higher quantities and make them last longer; whereas if they were to buy
organic foods for a higher price it would seem like a rip off. Since many individuals around the world are
letting their standard of living affect their diet it is impossible to only turn our attention to ‘added sugar’.
The public as a whole needs to understand why it is that these people/families are allowing their standard
of living to affect their unhealthy diets.
As more people take on a holistic view they will begin to understand that health is not a crystal clear
subject. We can’t just say that the main causes of non-communicable diseases are tobacco, alcohol and
diet. As a public we need to sit back and evaluate what causes these main issues. Taking the scientific
route does not explain all the stated reasons in “Public Health: The Toxic Truth about Sugar” behind non-
communicable disease. When taking a holistic view one is able to fully understand why people make the
choices they do; there will always be a reason behind how and why an individual’s diet is affected.
Works Cited
Works Cited
Zaki, Moushira, Sanaa Mohamed, and Manal EL-Salam. "Risk Factors for Obesity among Egyptian
Children." EBSCO Publishing Service Selection Page. 1 Sept. 2011. Web. 10 Feb. 2012.
<http://ehis.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=4>.
"How Much Physical Activity Do Older Adults Need?" Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 01 Dec. 2011. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. <http://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/everyone/guidelines/olderadults.html>.
Lustig, Robert, Laura Schmidt, and Claire Brindis. "“Public Health: The Toxic Truth about Sugar”." Nature.com. 2 Feb. 2012. Web. 21 Feb. 2012. <http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v482/n7383/full/482027a.html>.
Images
http://www.flickr.com/photos/jinneepham/5203069571/
http://www.flickr.com/photos/steveweaver/500105873/
Wednesday, February 15, 2012
Do Strength Increasing Supplements Live Up to the Claims?
(Image from Wikimedia Commons http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Whey-protein-optimum.jpg - filelinks)
Have you ever been skeptical of the benefits of a dietary supplement seen in a local GNC or other nutrition shop? Have you ever wondered if the claims on the labels of those protein containers are actually true, or have any scientific research backing them? Given the high prices of supplements such as whey protein formulas, it is hard not to question whether the manufacturer-claimed results are worth the money. Whey protein supplements have long been regarded as the go-to supplement for an athlete who is active in resistance training, but is this necessarily true? According to a recent study by the Air Force Research Laboratory says that this statement is, indeed, one of fact.
In the study, thirty moderately fit men were randomly assigned to either a whey protein supplement or a placebo group, which was to be taken every day for eight weeks. Several preliminary tests were taken to determine the effects of the supplement after the experimental period was over. The participants completed a modified version of an Air Force fitness exam, a computerized cognition test, and an X-ray absorptiometry test to determine body composition. After eight weeks, the groups were reexamined in the aforesaid manners. The protein group showed significant increases in bench press performance, push-up performance, total mass, non-fat mass, and lean muscle mass whereas the control group remained unchanged. The scientists who conducted the study have concluded that whey protein supplements do, in fact, help with muscle growth and strength increases.
If you are looking to increase your strength and add muscle mass to your body, then perhaps you should consider supplementing your diet with whey protein. Science has shown that a daily regimen of whey protein along with a workout routine will positively affect strength and muscle mass of those who take the supplement.
Joseph Fischer, et al. "The Influence Of 8 Weeks Of Whey-Protein And Leucine
Supplementation On Physical And Cognitive Performance." International Journal Of Sport Nutrition & Exercise Metabolism 20.5 (2010): 409-417. Academic Search Complete. Web. 10 Feb. 2012.
Reproductive Health
The study was not a case study, in which original research was performed; however, the study was a form of archival research that uses data that has already been collected in order to conduct a study. The study was performed using a state-based Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System from 2002 data to compare Hispanic and NHW mothers of live-born infants overall and in several states with the highest and lowest Hispanic birth increases during 1998–2002. The monitoring system was from a hospital and the data was collected from personal records. There were 5,104 Hispanics used in the study and 22,608 non Hispanic Whites used. To explain the data that they found, they conducted t-tests that would compare the risk ratios in the states with a high/low concentration of Hispanic births. T-tests are statistical hypothesis tests that are used to compare means between numbers to evaluate differences between different sets of data.
The study found that Hispanic mothers are generally “younger, of lower socioeconomic status, and less likely to receive early prenatal care than the NHW mothers.” Since the Hispanic mothers are of low socioeconomic status, they most likely do not have the funds necessary to receive prenatal care. It is also possible that in their culture, they do not feel the need to receive prenatal care. They were found to smoke and drink less which most likely resulted in them reporting less preterm labor and hypertension, high blood pressure, during pregnancy. Although they did have some benefits of pregnancy that non Hispanic White mothers did not, they were also found to be more at risk for developing Gestational diabetes. Gestational diabetes is diagnosed when diabetes first arises during pregnancy. When compared to states with smallest birth increases, Hispanics in states with the largest increases are more likely than NHWs to report healthy behavior, for example, continued breastfeeding and normal BMI. This could possibly be because there was a higher concentration of Hispanics within an area, which would influence the ease of labor/birth that Hispanic mothers experience. However, Hispanic mother in states with the largest increases are more likely to report late prenatal care, hospitalization during pregnancy, and low socioeconomic status. A lower risk of hypertension is reported only by Hispanics in states with small birth increases.
In conclusion, the study shows that reproductive health characteristics among Hispanic and NHW women differ, but more specifically that only Hispanic mothers in states with a small increase most resemble the characteristics of non Hispanic White mothers. The results found from the study could be used to understand more about the Hispanic population and to better estimate future population ratios.
Sources:
Image: http://www.flickr.com/photos/j0nny_t/2237527609/
Article: Maternal & Child Health Journal; May2008, Vol. 12 Issue 3, p342-356, 15p, 6 Charts, 1 Graph
Risk Factors Associated with Obesity
Risk Factors Associated with Obesity
The obesity in children and teenagers is a prevalent issue in countries everywhere. Many young people lack the proper education necessary to maintain a healthy lifestyle which can be blamed on their parents, the school systems, media and even society. A test was completed in Egypt that compared different risk factors associated with this rising epidemic and concluded that “low socioeconomic level of family, child's eating behavior and parental obesity are the main risk factors for the obesity among Egyptian children”. Even though this study was completed in Egypt, the results obtained can be implemented onto countries and children in these countries everywhere. It’s the responsibility of citizens all throughout the world to become more educated on the topic of obesity to save our youth and allow them to lead healthy lifestyles.
An important risk factor of obesity is a child’s eating behavior. A critical part to having a healthy diet is based off of what a person consumes. A lot of times when the parents are not around to supervise their children they tend to consume the wrong things which can only harm, not help. Increased supervision would prove beneficial if parents knew what was the right foods for their children to consume. Basically, education is key. If parents know what is the right foods to feed their children, the obesity rates will decrease substantially. Learned habits usually start in the home and if children can be taught how to eat correctly by the people who have a good amount of influence over them they can only benefit in the long run.Another risk factor of obesity is parental obesity. When one or more of the parents are obese, their children tend to also be obese. Obese parents have proven to make the wrong choices when deciding how to lead their lifestyle. Majority of obese parents do not exercise enough and consume the wrong foods. Children will follow by example but if they are not given a good example to follow they will most likely end up exactly like their parents. Unfortunately, in a household where a healthy lifestyle is not exemplified, the wrong foods are bought which means the children will consume unhealthy items on a daily basis. Also, if a child does not see their parents carrying on active lifestyles, they probably won’t be active either. If parents do their part and become healthy, it will prove very beneficial for their children in the long run.
The last critical risk factor associated with obesity is living in a low socioeconomic level. When you’re family is of low income with an unfortunate living situation, being healthy will not be your top priority. Parents, especially the mothers have a major affect on the health of their children. It’s been proven that “dieting and healthy weight control practices such as reducing high energy and fat intakes and increasing exercise are more common in women of a higher SES (socioeconomic status)”. Unfortunately, since health may not be emphasized adequately in a low socioeconomic home, the children will suffer. While at home, it is the responsibility of the parent to provide a healthy diet for their children and promote physical well being. Whether or not a child is of a low socioeconomic home or high socioeconomic home should not matter.
Although obesity is on the rise, it can decrease. With proper education, people all around the world can learn how to lead healthy lifestyles. When people start to lead healthy lifestyles obesity will decrease and our youth will be saved.Works Cited
Zaki, Moushira, Sanaa Mohamed, and Manal EL-Salam. "Risk Factors for Obesity among Egyptian Children." EBSCO Publishing Service Selection Page. 1 Sept. 2011. Web. 10 Feb. 2012. <http://ehis.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=4>.
Images
http://www.flickr.com/photos/55158656@N06/6350319260/
http://www.flickr.com/photos/55158656@N06/6313557901/
“Bad to the Bone”
Based on the United Nations’ 1998 predictions, over seven percent of the Malaysian population will be over the age of sixty-five by 2020 and the rate of hip fractures will increase from seventy-three to ninety per 100,00 individuals more than fifty years of age over the decade. Why is this so? What is a contributing factor to these numbers? One major factor involves the use of injectable birth control (Mohammadi , Aizan, Nazri , Othman, Mahmud 1187-1194). Malaysian women most commonly use injectable birth controls such as Net-in or Unidepo. Osteoporosis, a form of chronic metabolic disease, is a prevalent and serious health problem worldwide. It leads to significant morbidity and mortality due to subsequent fractures and finally a deteriorated quality of life. This will present a problem for developed and underdeveloped countries as a result of the volume of the elderly population (Mohammadi , Aizan, Nazri , Othman, Mahmud 1187-1194).
The study that was done consisted of a total of 201 healthy postmenopausal women, including 133 women with and 68 without Unidepo usage history, were enrolled through purposive sampling method from menopause clinics. Subjects who had menopausal hormone therapy throughout the previous six months or longer, took Vitamin D or calcium supplements for more than one month during the previous year, or took medicines affecting bone density and diseases influencing bone health were all excluded. All subjects were interviewed for baseline characteristics and Unidepo injection history. A validated food frequency questionnaire for Malaysia was used to determine the calcium intake and body mass index (BMI) was calculated. Evaluation of bone status was performed using calcaneal Quantitative Ultrasound. All participants were required to provide a measure of their daily activity (Mohammadi, Aizan, Nazri, Othman, Mahmud 1187-1194).
Results showed that the mean of age, age at menopause, years after menopause, per capita income, BMI, and calcium intake in non-users were higher than users of Unidepo. The results also revealed that postmenopausal women who use Unidepo for more than seven years had the highest percentage of bone density/bone loss. Another important finding was that Malay women over forty who used the injectable birth control for longer periods of time resulted in the manifestation of bone loss (Mohammadi , Aizan, Nazri , Othman, Mahmud 1187-1194).
Limitations in the study that may have caused some discrepancies include some of the users in the study used Unidepo for as long as nineteen years. Using the drug for a long period of time may result in irreversibility of bone mass. Other limitations include differences in study design, variation in the number and age of enrolled subjects, the bone sites used in measurement, statistical tests, and the follow-up period. Researchers were not able to use the DXA x-ray, which is the gold standard for bone measurement, because of its non-affordability. Another limitation is that the site where bone density was measured was the calcaneus. However, the most susceptible places in the body for bone loss are the hip and spine. Because bone density was not measured here, results were not generalized to the whole skeleton (Mohammadi , Aizan, Nazri , Othman, Mahmud 1187-1194).
A strength of the study is researchers assessing the effect of injectables on bone mass density in post-menopausal women. There are very few studies that have assessed these effects in post-menopausal women. Incorporating long-term users of Unidepo is also a strength of the research. Although there may be other risk factors involved in the development of bone density, it can be concluded from the study that postmenopausal former Unidepo users who used the drug after age 40 and for longer periods of time are more susceptible to develop osteoporosis (Mohammadi , Aizan, Nazri , Othman, Mahmud 1187-1194).
Works Cited
Fatemeh Mohammadi , Hamid Tengku Aizan , Mohd Yazid Nazri , Zanariah Othman , Mahmud , . "The effect of past use of injectable contraceptive on bone mineral density in malaysian postmenopausal women." HealthMED. 5.5 (2011): 1187-1194. Print. <http://ehis.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=b2ece5d5-5b58-4fc0-a550-a063c9f6dbe0@sessionmgr113&vid=4&hid=109>.
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